Progressive Review

Chapter 9

1. Water vapor can be converted directly to solid water by the process of_______ p.244

2. Water has a _______(high/low) heat capacity (specific heat). P.244

3. When water freezes, its volume___________ p. 244

4. ______refers to the ability of water to climb upward in narrow openings. Pp.244-245

5. At any one time, less than______ percent of all water in the world is actively moving through the hydrologic cycle p. 245

6. The oceans contain about ____percent of all water on the earth p. 245

7. Most evaporation takes place over the ______of the world. P. 246

8. Oceans cover about ______ percent of the earth's surface p. 246

9. The salinity of the ocean is relatively _______ (high/low) in areas of high rainfall and near the mouths of major rivers p. 249

10. The water temperature along the east coast of a continent (along the western margins of an ocean) is usually ________ than along the west coast p. 249

11. Surface ocean currents are caused primarily by _________ p. 250

12. In most coastal areas of the world, the tides will rise for about ____ hours and then fall for about ___ hours p. 251

13. About ____ percent of the earth's land area is covered with permanent glacial ice. P. 254

14. An "iceberg" is made up of frozen _______ (fresh/salt) water p. 255

15. Lakes are especially common in regions that experienced erosion and deposition by ______ in the recent geologic past p. 256

16. The amount of water found beneath the land surface is ______ (greater/less) than that found on the land surface p. 260

17. An _____ is a layer of permeable rock or sediments separated by layers of impermeable rock called ____________ p. 262

18. The top of the zone of water saturation below the surface is called the ______ ______ p. 263

19. With an _____ well, water rises to the surface without pumping p. 264

Chapter 10

1. The __________ is the most basic energy source for all life. p.271

2. Only about 0.1 percent of received solar energy is stored by plants through the process of

________ . p. 271

3. The most abundant single substance in the bio is __________ . p. 271

4. Water is found in the biosphere in two ways: first, _________ , chemically bound into plant and animal tissues, and second, in _________ as part of the respiration and transpiration process. p. 272

5. The most important process in the carbon cycle is the fixation of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into ________ through the process of photosynthesis, and then the eventual conversion back to carbon dioxide. p. 272

6. Plant-eating animals consume carbohydrates and release carbon dioxide through the process of __________ . p. 272

7. The largest "reservoir" of carbon dioxide through the surface of the Earth is found in sedimentary deposits such as _______ and _______ . p. 272

8. Most oxygen gas in the atmosphere has been released during the process of ______ . p. 273

9. Most free nitrogen gas becomes only after being converted into nitrates through the process of nitrogen __________ . p. 274

10. Microorganisms are primarily responsible for the ________ process, in which useable nitrogen (nitrate) is converted back into __________ ___________ . p. 274

11. Energy and nutrients flow through the biosphere from one organism to another in ________ __________ . p. 276

12. In the most basic food chain, plants are eaten by __________ consumers, which in turn can be eaten by ________ consumers. p. 277

13. The binomial system of biological classification is primarily based on the _______ of an organism. p. 278

14. Biota are subdivided into __________ or plants, and ________ or animals. p. 278

15. __________ is a term referring to the animals that swim freely on the ocean. p.278

16. An ________ is defined as a functional community of plants and animals (at many different scales). p.278

17. A _________ is a large, functional assemblage of plants and animals, usually named after the dominant type of ___________ . p. 279

18. __________ is the total weight of all organisms in an area. p. 279

19. Biomes merge with each other through transition zones called _________ . p. 280

20. The most important environmental constraints on organisms are usually _________ factors. p. 280

21. Light is crucial to green plants because of their dependence on the process of _________ . p.280

22. _________ refers to an organism's response to the length of exposure to light. p. 280-281

23. Edaphic factors relate to the characteristics of the _________. p. 284

24. Some plant species scatter their seeds only after the heat from a ________ has opened their cones or seedpods. p. 284

25. Forests generally dominate areas of relatively ___________ (high/low) precipitation, while low-growing plants are generally found in areas of relatively __________ precipitation. p. 285

Chapter 11

1. ____ _______ is the natural replacement of one type of vegetation with another over time.

2. ______ refers to the permanent elimination of a species on the earth.

3. ______ are plants that survive throughout the year, while ____ die off in one season but leave seeds behind to germinate during the next favorable season.

4. Xerophytic adaptations in plants allow survival in _____ (wet/dry) environments.

5. Plants with fleshy stems that store moisture are called ________

6. _________ are plants that live in water-saturated soils, while _______ are plants that live permanently immersed in water.

7. _______ are plants that hold their seeds in cones.

8. _______ trees shed leaves throughout the year, but appear fully leaved at all times, while ____ trees shed their leaves during one season of the year.

9. The stable community of plants that remains after plant succession is called the _______ vegetation.

10. Plant associations that are dominated by short woody plants are called ____________

11. A low latitude (tropical), tall grassland is the ________, while a midlatitude tall grassland is the ___________

12. The elevation of the upper treeline generally becomes _________ (higher/lower), moving from the equator toward the poles.

13. The sun-facing _______ slope of a mountain is generally hotter and drier than the less sun-exposed ______ slope.

14. _______ refers to the state of an animal that is dormant during the winter, while _______ refers to the state of an animal that is dormant during a hot or dry period.

15. A relationship between two species that is mutually beneficial is called ____________.

16. About ______ percent of all animal species have no backbone and are referred to as _______

17. _________ mammals grow inside the mother's body until old enough to survive outside the womb.

18. The _____ zoogeographic region has the most distinctive fauna of any major region of the world.

19. Most nutrients in the tropical rainforest biome are held in the living _______ rather than in the soil.

20. Recurrent wildfires are a typical occurrence inthe tropical ______- biome.

21. ________ refers to the dense, woody plant community of the mediterranean shrublands of North America.

22. Most tree species in midlatitude deciduous forests are _________ (broadleaf/needle-leaf) and deciduous.

23. Most trees in the boreal forest biome are needle-leaf_____(deciduous/evergreen) trees. Typically ;in this biome, a ______ (large/small) number of different species is represented.

24. Trees are unable to survive in the tundra biome because the summers are so short and ______ (warm/cool).

Chapter 12

1. ______ is a layer of loose, weathered rock below the surface.

2. In general, soil-forming processes are most active in areas of ______(high/low) temperature and ______ (high/low) moisture.

3. Soil tends to be deepest where the slope of the land is __________.

4. ________ decompose organic matter into soil humus.

5. Dead plant parts often accumulate at the surface to form a layer of _______.

6. About ______ percent of the average soil consists of pore spaces.

7. Water can be pulled upward through a soil by __________ action

8. Dissolved nutrients are carried down through a soil in solution in a process called ________.

9. A soil is said to be at ______ ______ when most pore spaces are filled with water.

10. A ________ is a soil texture in which there is an even mixture of clay, sand, and silt.

11. Porosity is a measure of a soil's ability to hold _______ and __________.

12. _______ are chemically active microscopic soil particles that are able to hold ________ and soil nutrients.

13. The _______ horizon is the uppermost soil layer and contains mostly ________ matter.

14. Most seeds germinate in the _________ horizon.

15. The E horizon is an eluvial layer, consisting mostly of resistant materials such as ________

16. The _______ horizon is the zone where clay, iron, and aluminum accumulate.

17. The _______ horizon consists of regolith and generally lacks organic matter.

18. Laterization processes are common in regions of the world with ________ temperatures and ________ rainfall.

19. A laterization regime typically results in the leaching away of __________, leaving primarily ________ and _________ oxides.

20. Podzolization normally takes place in regions of _____ (warm/cool) temperatures and _____ precipitation, such as the boreal forest biome.

21. Gleization occurs in waterlogged areas in __________ (warm/cool) climates.

22. The speed of decomposition of organic matter in gley soils is generally __________.

23. Salinization takes place in arid regions where intense evaporation concentrates _______ near the surface of the soil.

24. In calcification regimes, ________ ________ often concentrates in the B horizon to form a __________

25. The Soil Taxonomy system is organized around the ________ characteristics of the soil rather than the environment or genesis of the soil.

26. _________ have the least-developed horizons of any soil order.

27. ________ are soils with a large proportion of clay, and are characterized by cracks on the surface.

28. _______ are soils that have developed out of volcanic ash.

29. ________ are common in tundra and mountain areas.

30. ________ are the most extensive of all soil orders and are found predominantly in dry regions

31. ________ are the most fertile of all soil orders.

Chapter 13

1. The oceanic crust of the Earth is about _________ miles thick.

2. The _______ is the abrupt change of rock composition and density at the base of the crust.

3. The uppermost mantle is rigid and extends down about ________ miles below the base of the continent.

4. Together, the crust and the rigid upper mantle are referred to as the _____________

5. The lithosphere rests on a hot, mobile layer of the mantle called the _________ which extends down to about ________ miles.

6. The _______ core is though to be molten, while thelayer below, the ______ core, is believed to be solid.

7. __________ are solid substances found in the crust, and have a specific crystal structure and chemical composition.

8. Magma is_________ rock material.

9. About ________ different minerals make up more than 95 percent of all rocks in the crust of the earth.

10. Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solification of __________

11. Igneous rocks that cool below the surface tend to have relatively________ (large/small) crystals, while igneous rocks that cool on the surface have relatively___________ crystals.

12. Igneous rocks that cool on the surface are called __________ igneous rocks. The most common rock of this type is ____________

13. Igneous rocks that cool below the surface are called __________ or ________ igneous rocks. The most common rock of this type is ____________

14. Sediments can be bonded into sedimentary rocks by ___________ and ______ cementation.

15. Most sedimentary rocks are deposited in horizontal layers called ___________

16. Limestone is composed of the chemical_________ _________ that is often derived from the skeletal remains of coral and sea shells.

17. Metamorphic rocks form from preexisting rocks that have been altered by ______ and _________, generally under the surface over long periods of time.

18. When metamorphosed, limestone typically turns into __________-

19. An individual topographic feature is called a _____________.

20. The difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points in an area is termed the local ___________-.

21. The doctrine of ____________ holds that "the present is the key to the past."

22. The _______ of a landform refers to the nature and arrangement of its rocks.

23. __________ processes tend to increase the relief of the landscape, while ________ processes tend to diminish the relief.

24. The ocean basins or continental platforms are examples of _________- order relief features, while major moutain ranges are considered ___________-order relief features.

Chapter 14

"Sima" refers to igneous rocks (often oceanic) largely composed of _______ and _____."Sial" refers to igneous rocks (usually continental) largely composed of ________ and _________. (pg. 385)

The concept of isostasy suggests that adding a great amount of weight to the Earth’s crust will cause it to ________-, while removing a great amount of weight will cause it to ________. (pg. 385)

All of the present continents were unified in a supercontinent called _________ about __________ million years ago. (pg. 386)

The mechanism of plate movement is believed to be the result of slow ________ of heated rocks within the mantle. (pg.387)

__________ _________ represent places that new ocean floor is being produced by volcanic activity. (pp. 387-388)

Old ocean floor descends back into the mantle near oceanic __________ in a process called__________. (pg. 388)

Because of the continual recycling of ocean crust, continental crust is almost always __________ (younger/older) than oceanic crust. (pg. 388)

Reversals of the Earth’s ________ field are recorded in the volcanic rock of the ocean floor in a pattern of symmetrical stripes on both sides of a midocean ridge. (pg. 388)

Ocean sediments become thicker and ______ (younger/older) away from midocean ridges. (pg. 388)

A "plate" (the "lithosphere") moves slowly over the less rigid ("plastic") __________ below. (pg. 390)

At __________ boundaries two plates move apart in opposite directions and new crust is added. _________ ___________ are the most common boundary of this type. These boundaries are often associated with _______ (deep/shallow) earthquakes. (pg. 391)

At __________ boundaries two plates collide together and so crust is "consumed." (pg. 391)

 

 

 

When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, there is subduction, forming an oceanic trench and chains of _________ inland from the continental edge. These boundaries are associated with both _______ -focus and _______ -focus earthquakes. The _________ Mountains of South America are associated with this kind of plate boundary. (pp. 391-392)

When an oceanic plate collides with an oceanic plate, there is subduction, forming a deep oceanic _____________ and a volcanic island arc. The _________ Islands of Alaska are an example of this. (pg. 392)

When two continental plates collide there is no subduction, but _______ building and ________ -focus earthquakes are common. (pg. 392)

At a _________ boundary, two plates slide past each other laterally. The _____ _______ Fault system of California is an example of this kind of boundary. (pg. 392)

A ____________ is a piece of crust that has been "accreted" onto the edge of another plate, typically a continental margin. (pg. 394)

The Hawaiian Islands are a chain of islands that formed as the Pacific Plate moves over a _________ _________ . Volcanoes become __________ as they move away from the hot spot atop the moving plate. (pg. 395)

Magma that cools on the surface of the Earth is called ___________. ___________ material includes rock, ash, dust and gases ejected from a volcano. (pg. 400)

Magma that is __________ (low /high) in silica, such as basalt, tends to produce fluid lava and quiet eruptions. (pg. 401)

Typically, volcanoes erupting lava that is fairly high in silica (such as andesite) will produce relatively ___________ -sided volcanic peaks known as __________ volcanoes, while volcanoes erupting low-silica lava (basalt) will produce __________ slopes and peaks known as _________ volcanoes. (pp. 401-403)

A caldera develops when a volcano _______ or _________. (pg. 405)

A _________ is the largest type of igneous intrusion, often forming the core of a large mountain range. A _________ is formed when viscous magma is forced between layers of rock. (pg. 407)

A __________ is a narrow vertical sheet of intrusive rock. (pg. 407)

A simple upfold is called an _______, while a simple downfold is called a ________. (pg. 409)

A magnitude 5 earthquake releases about ___________ times as much energy as a magnitude 4 earthquake. (pg. 412)

Most earthquakes occur along the plate __________. (pg. 414)

Faulting occurs when rock is forcefully broken and __________. (pg. 414)

A __________ fault results from tension stresses. (pg. 416)

Reverse and thrust faults result from _________ stresses. (pg. 416)

The movement along a _____ - ___________ fault is horizontal. (pg. 417)

When a block of crust is upthrown along one side, a _________ - __________ mountain is produced. (pg. 417)

A ___________ is produced when a block of crust is upthrown between two parallel faults, while a __________ is formed when a valley is downdropped between two parallel faults. (pg. 417)

Chapter 15

___________ is the collection of processes that wear away and remove rock material. (pg. 423)

________ is the first step in the shaping of the landscape by external processes. (pg. 423)

_________ are cracks in rocks that develop due to stress, while ________ are formed when rock is forcibly broken and displaced. ( pg. 425)

Long sets of _______ __________ often form planes of weakness that extend for great distances. These planes of weakness become more susceptible to the processes of ________ and __________ than the surrounding rock. (pp. 425-426)

From a chemical standpoint, the three most important atmospheric components of weathering are _______, ________ ______, and _________ _______, although liquid water is probably the most important agent overall. (pg. 426)

__________ weathering involves the disintegration of rock without a change in its chemical composition. (pg. 427)

When water freezes, it _______. When this process occurs in rock openings, the process of ___________ __________ can shatter even strong rock. (pg. 427)

When water is drawn into rock cracks in arid climates, the crystallization of minerals can break apart rock in the process of _________ _______. (pg. 428)

_________ is the process in which the surface of a rock peels off in concentric curved layers. The ________ of pressure from formerly buried rock is thought to play a part in this process. (pp. 428-429)

Usually, mechanical weathering is accompanied by _________ weathering in which the chemical composition of the rock is altered and weakened. (pg. 430)

Almost all chemical weathering processes require the presence of ________. (pg. 430)

The process of _____ occurs when oxygen that has been dissolved in water reacts with certain ______ elements to form a new substance, such as rust. (pg. 431)

Hydrolysis is the joining of __________ with other substances to form weaker products. (pg. 431)

In the process of carbonation _______ _________ dissolved in water produces carbonic acid that is capable of producing very soluble products. (pg. 431)

Biotic processes, such as the growth of plant _______, also contribute to mechanical weathering. (pp. 431-432)

Chemical weathering tends to be greatest in environments with _______ (high/low) temperatures and ______ (high/low) levels of precipitation. (pg. 432)

The most important propelling force behind all kinds of mass wasting is _______. (pg. 432)

The _______ of ________ is the steepest slope that loose particles can maintain without moving downslope. (pg. 433)

Water often adds _________ to weathered materials, and may also act as a _________, making them slip more easily. (pg. 433)

Clay tends to become ________ when wet. (pg. 433)

________ is a form of mass wasting in which weathered rock drops to the foot of a steep slope, often accumulating material in ________ cones. (pg. 433)

A _________ involves the downslope movement of mostly unconsolidated regolith, often assisted by the presence of __________ which makes the mass of rock heavier. ( pg. 435)

A ___________ is a type of slide in which a portion of a hillside rotates and/or slips downslope a short distance. (pg. 435)

An ___________ results when a section of hillside becomes saturated and flows downslope a short distance. (pg. 436)

Mudflows take place in ________ and involve the accumulation of mud and debris during heavy rain. (pg. 436)

__________ is a very slow type of mass wasting in which just the surface layer of soil moves downhill. (pg. 436)

___________ is a type of soil creep that usually takes place in regions of tundra climate. (pg. 438)

Chapter 16

A _________ is the portion of the terrain with a clearly established drainage system, while an ________ is the area of land "between the rivers." (pp. 441-442)

Small particles on a hill can be moved a short distance by falling drops of rain through the process of _________ erosion, while water flowing over the surface in a thin sheet can move material through ________ erosion. (pp. 442-443)

The greatest erosion takes place when water is channeled into a ________. (pg. 443)

The hydraulic power of the water is usually aided by the _______ "tools" carried in a stream. (pg. 443)

The chemical action of water also helps a stream erode through the process of _________. (pg. 443)

The erosive power of a stream is largely determined by the velocity of the water, which is dependent on the _________ of the stream, and by the _________ of flow. (pp. 443 & 446)

In ___________ drainage patterns, geologic structures do not control the evolution of the drainage pattern. (pg. 444)

A ___________ drainage pattern often develops in areas with alternating parallel ridges and valleys. (pg. 444)

A ____________ drainage pattern develops around a steep, round mountain such as a volcano. ( pg. 444)

The ________ load of a stream includes salts carried in solution, while the ________ load of fine particles is carried along in the flow of water. (pg. 446)

The bedload of a stream consists of larger rock fragments, such as _______ and _______, that are bounced along the stream bottom by the process of _________, or rolled along through the process of _________. (pg. 446)

The _________ of a stream refers to the largest size particle that can be carried by the water flow. (pg. 446)

The _________ of a stream refers to the amount of solid material that can be carried by a stream at a given time. (pg. 446)

Whenever the velocity ( and/or volume) of a stream decreases _________ can take place. (pg. 446)

__________ is a term for stream-deposited material. (pg. 446)

Most streams exhibit great variation in their volume of flow or "__________." (pg. 447)

Most stream erosion takes place during times of _________ flow. (pg. 447)

Because of _______ along the bottom and sides of a stream channel, the water tends to move _________ (slowest/fastest) at the center of a channel. (pg. 447)

_________ (slow/fast) moving streams tend to be fairly turbulent, and this can _______ (increase/decrease) the amount of erosion possible. (pg. 447)

During periods of low water flow, streams tend to _______ (fill/scour) their channel bottoms, while during periods of high water flow, the stream bottom is usually ______. (pp. 447-448)

The line connecting the deepest parts of a stream channel is called the ___________. This line rarely forms a ________ (straight/curving) line. (pg. 448)

A _________ stream has many interconnected shallow channels. (pg. 449)

A drainage _________ is an area that contributes water to a specific stream, and is separated from the drainage area of another stream by a drainage_________. (pg. 450)

Where two first-order streams unite, a _______ -order stream is formed. (pg. 450)

In general, as the order of a stream increases, the average gradient of the stream ___________ (increases/decreases). (pg. 451)

A ___________ stream carries water all year, while an ______ stream only carries water immediately after a rain. (pg. 451)

The ultimate _______level represents the lowest possible elevation that a stream can downcut. (pg. 452)

Valley deepening typically takes place when the velocity of the water is _________ (low/high) or there is a relatively ________ (small/large) volume of water. (pg. 453)

When streams are downcutting rapidly, a steep-sided _________ - shaped valley cross-section usually is present. (pg. 453)

Knickpoints typically migrate _______ (upstream/downstream) and disappear. (pg. 453)

When a stream flows down a gentle slope, energy will be diverted from downcutting, and ___________ erosion will predominate through stream meandering. (pg. 453)

Erosion in a meandering stream channel takes place on the ________ (inside/outside) banks of the channel, while deposition takes place along the _________ banks. (pp.453 & 456)

_________ _________ results when one stream cuts into the course of another stream and "steals" its water. (pg. 454)

Valleys are lengthened through ________ erosion near their upper end, and by ______ formation at their lower end. (pp. 458-460)

Deltas will form only where rivers flow into _______ bodies of water. (pg. 460)

When a stream accumulates a great thickness of alluvium after a period of flooding, the level of the stream bed may be raised through the process of ____________. (pg. 462)

When one meander of a stream cuts into another meander, a section of old stream channel may be left as an _________ lake. (pg. 462)

A ________ stream may run parallel to a large river when it cannot flow directly into the main channel because of large _______ ________. (pp. 462-463)

Stream terraces indicate that stream _________ has taken place. (pp. 463-465)

When a meandering stream is uplifted slowly, __________ meanders may result. (pg. 465)

 

 

In the geomorphic cycle devised by William Morris Davis, a youthful landscape is characterized by many _________ -shaped valleys, since downcutting is dominant. (pg. 466)

A _________ is the term Davis used to describe an old, nearly-flat erosional landscape. (pg. 467)

The _________ ( mechanical/chemical) action of underground water in regions of limestone bedrock is much more important as a sculptor of topography than _________ action. (pg. 471)

Underground water functions as a weak solution of _______ acid that is produced when ________ ________ is dissolved in water. This weak acid is especially effective in dissolving a rock such as ________. (pg.471)

Groundwater usually is able to penetrate underground rock most easily through ________ and bedding planes. (pg. 472)

Lime in solution can be deposited in cave openings when the _______ of the dissolved calcium carbonate takes place. (pg. 472)

The orange and green colors of mineral deposits around hot springs and geysers are often due to _________ . (pg. 472)

The largest openings of caverns are usually developed horizontally along the ________ ______ in the limestone. (pg. 472)

__________ are precipitated deposits of minerals in a cavern, and can include structures hanging from the ceiling called _________ and structures built up from the floor called_____________. (pg. 473)

Although karst topography is most common in areas of massive limestone bedrock, it may also occur in other soluble rocks such as _______, _________, or _________. (pg. 473)

A ________ is a depression resulting from the dissolution of surface rocks, while a __________ _________ results from the collapse of a subsurface cave. (pp. 474-475)

_________ ___________ refers to landscapes where tall limestone towers with nearly vertical walls are found. (pg. 476)

Most karst areas lack a well-defined system of ________ drainage. (pg. 476)

A _________ ________ forms when underground water comes in contact with heated rocks or magma below the surface. (pg. 477)

__________ is a common massive calcium carbonate (lime) deposit produced by a hot spring. (pg. 477)

Hydrothermal activity usually requires a intrusion of __________ at a relatively shallow depth below the surface, an abundance of __________ that can seep down and become heated, and broken or weak surface rocks to allow the _________- to move up and down easily. (pg. 478)

An intermittent hot spring that sporadically emits hot water or steam is called a ________. (pg. 480)

A ____________ is a surface crack that is connected with an underground heat source, but the limited supply of water only produces the venting of __________ at the surface. (pg. 481)

 

Progressive Review

In arid areas _________ (mechanical/chemical) weathering is dominant. (pg. 485)

Deserts often do not have a layer of _________ and _________ over the bedrock. (pg. 485)

__________ is one size of material that is easily moved around by wind in deserts. (pg. 485)

Rainfall in deserts is typically _______ but brief, and so when streams are flowing, they are usually at _________ flow. (pg. 485)

_________ tends not to be a powerful erosional force in deserts. (pg. 486)

A basin of interior drainage has no outlet for water to flow to the ________. (pg. 486)

Deserts typically have ___________ (extensive/sparse) vegetation cover. (pg. 486)

Sandy desert landscapes are called an ________, while stony deserts are called a __________. (pp. 486-487)

__________ ___________ is a dark and shiny coating on desert rocks. (pg. 487)

Most streams in deserts are __________, carrying water only after a rain. (pg. 492)

A dry lake bed, or __________, forms in the lowest part of a basin floor. These dry lake beds are called ___________ if they contain a high concentration of salts in the sediments of the lake bed. (pg. 493)

Most large lakes in deserts are the remnants of larger lakes that formed during a time of _____________ (drier/wetter) climate. (pg. 493)

In general, resistant rock layers will form _________ (gentle/steep) slopes, while softer layers of rock will form __________ slopes. (pp. 493-494)

Isolated steep-sided mountains or hills rising up in the middle of deserts are often called ___________, or __________ if they have rounded or domed shapes. (pg. 495)

A ___________ is a gently sloping bedrock surface in the piedmont zone of a mountain front. (pg. 495)

Most deposition in deserts takes place in the _________ zone of a mountain. Deposition takes place here because the velocity of the streams coming out of the mountains ____________ (increases/decreases) when they reach the flatter valley floors. (pg. 497)

________ - sized rock fragments rarely are deposited in the middle of flat basins since the flow of water into these areas is limited. (pg. 497)

__________ processes are those relating to the action of wind. (pg. 498)

___________ is the process of shifting loose particles around, and can take place by blowing them into the air, or _________ them along the ground. (pg. 498)

Shallow depressions formed by wind action are called __________ or ________ _______. (pg. 498)

Particles carried by wind can be deposited when the velocity of the wind __________. (pg.499)

Sand moves up the ______ (gentle/steep) slope of the windward side of a sand dune, and down the ________ slope of the leeward side. (pg. 499)

A ________ dune is an isolated crescent-shaped dune moving across a ________ (sandy/nonsandy) surface. (pg. 499)

 

___________ dunes are long ridges of sand that commonly form in regions with two different __________ directions. (pg. 500)

___________ is wind-deposited silt that is not associated with dry lands. (pg. 501)

Most mountains in the Basin-and-Range province of North America were formed through ____________. (pg.503)

___________- fans develop in the piedmont zone of the mountains, and over time may coalesce into a __________. (pp. 503-505)

The accumulation of __________ is common in the playas on basin floors. (pg. 506)

The _________ that supports the steep scarps in the mesa-and-scarp region of the United States typically consists of a resistant layer of __________ rock. (pg. 507)

The edge of the mesa escarpments is gradually worn back by undermining the ________, often through the process of groundwater _______________. (pg. 508)

With time, mesas are gradually worn back to a __________, which in time will be worn back to a __________, a final spire held up by the caprock. (pp. 508-509)

Poorly-consolidated sedimentary strata can be worn down into a highly-gullied landscape known as __________. (pg. 509)

The _________ epoch was the most recent episode of global glaciation, beginning about ____________ million years ago, and ending about __________ thousand years ago. (pg. 513)

The Pleistocene included at least _________ episodes of major glacial advance. (pp. 513-514)

At its maximum extent, Pleistocene glaciers covered about _________ of the Earth’s land surface. (pg. 514)

In the _________ zone beyond the maximum extent of the ice, _________ produced many erosional and depositional features. (pg. 514)

During the Pleistocene glacial advances, the level of the oceans ________ (rose/dropped) as water became locked up on land as ice. (pg. 514)

The enormous weight of glacial ice caused the crust below continental ice sheets to ___________ (risk/sink). After the ice retreated, these areas began to __________ in isostatic adjustment. (pg. 514)

Because of the greater availability of water during the Pleistocene, many ___________ developed in basins in areas outside the margins of the ice. (pg. 515)

Today, the largest continental ice sheet is found on ___________. (pg. 516)

In high mountain areas, ice can accumulate to cover all but the highest peaks, forming a ____________ _________. (pg. 518)

Alpine glaciers confined to their upper-most basins are called _____________ glaciers, while those flowing down valleys and spreading out broadly over the flatland below the mountains are known as __________ glaciers. (pg. 520)

The existence of a glacier depends on the balance between the _________ of ice and the ___________ of ice. (pg. 520)

Over time, snow is compacted into granules of ice called __________. (pg. 521)

The equilibrium line of a glacier represents the boundary between the upper zone of _____________ and the lower zone of __________. (pg. 521)

Glacial ice may break at the surface of a glacier, but deep in the glacier, ice under confining ________ is capable of flowing. (pg. 522)

When the outer edge of a glacier is retreating, the ice inside a glacier can still be flowing ____________. (pg. 522)

___________ takes place when water from a glacier extends down into ________ or ___________ in the rock below and refreezes. Rock is then extracted when the glacier advances. (pp. 522-523)

The abrasion of glaciers is aided by _______ dragged along the bottom of a ice, acting as abrasive tools. (pg. 523)

The most typical component of a glacier’s load is ground up rock known as _________ _________________. (pg. 524)

Additional erosion by glaciers can be accomplished by the ________ that runs over and under a glacier. (pg. 524)

 

 

__________ refers to all material moved and deposited by any kind of glacial action, while _________ is a term that refers only to material moved directly by the ice. (pg. 525)

A glacial _________ is a large boulder deposited by a glacier. (pg. 525)

_________ deposition refers to material moved and deposited by glacial meltwater. (pg. 525)

A roche moutonnee is an erosional feature produced by glacial _________ on one side of a bedrock hill, and glacial ___________ on the lee side. (pg. 527)

A __________ forms when a block of ice melts and leaves a depression in the post-glacial landscape. (pg. 527)

A _________ moraine is a mound of _________ that develops at the edge of the ice at the position of maximum glacial advance. (pg. 527)

A ____________ moraine marks a location of ice stabilization during a period of glacial retreat. (pp. 527-528)

__________ drift refers to the glacial debris that has been sorted by glaciofluvial action. (pg. 529)

The most extensive glaciofluvial feature is the _________ ___________, formed beyond the margin of the ice by the meltwater of the glacier. (pg. 529)

A __________ _________ is a lengthy deposit of glaciofluvial alluvium along a valley bottom beyond the outwash plain. (pg. 530)

A _________ is a bedrock "amphitheater" formed at the upper end of an alpine glacial valley. (pg. 532)

Where alpine glaciers erode back into a mountain peak from three or four sides, a pyramid-shaped ________ is formed, while a serrated ridge known as an __________ is formed when cirques are eroded back into a ridge from opposite sides. (pp. 532-533)

A lake occupying an empty cirque is called a _______ (pg. 533)

Alpine glaciers tend to _______ and _________ pre-existing river valleys, forming a ____________ -shaped glacial trough. (pg. 534)

___________ lakes may form in the depressions of the "steps" of a glacial valley. (pg. 535)

Tributary glaciers rarely cut down as deeply as the main trunk glaciers, so after deglaciation, _________ valleys may be left high above the main glacial valley. (pg. 535)

_________ moraines are mounds of till that form along the sides of a valley glacier, while ___________ moraines form when two glaciers come together, leaving a mound of till down the middle of a valley. (pp. 535-536)

During the Pleistocene glacial advances the level of the oceans __________ (rose/dropped). (pg. 543)

Tides rise and fall in a cycle that takes approximately ________ hours. (pg. 544)

___________ is the most important generator of ocean waves. (pg. 545)

Waves in the open ocean are waves of _________ in which most of the motion of the water is up and down as the wave passes. (pg. 546)

As a wave moves into shallow water, the top of the wave begins to fall over as it is slowed by the frictional drag along the ocean_________. The top of the wave finally falls over and forward, and becomes a wave of ________. (pg. 546)

A breaking wave pushes water up on the beach as _________, and the water flows back down off the shore as _________. (pp. 546-547)

Waves bend around coastal irregularities through the process of wave _________. This tends to focus the action of waves on __________ projecting out from the shore. (pg. 547)

Tsunamis are caused by underwater ______ or volcanic eruptions. These waves tend to be inconspicuous in the open ocean since they have a very long _________. (pg. 547)

Streams flowing into the ocean provide much of the _______ and other sediment that is transported and deposited along coastlines. (pg. 548)

Along the shores of bodies of water that freeze during the winter, _______ ______ can deform the shoreline topography. (pg. 548)

________- polyps excrete an exoskeleton of ________ ________ that can eventually build up into large coastal reef structures. (pp. 548-549)

 

Most coastal erosion is accomplished by ________ action, but this is often assisted by the _____________ effect of sand and gravel. (pg. 549)

The chemical action of water is also a factor in coastal erosion since most rocks are _______ to some extent in seawater. (pg. 550)

Most movement of sediments along a coast is accomplished by _________ action. (pg. 550)

Waves breaking on the shore at an oblique angle can cause the zigzagging movement of sand along a coast in a process known as __________ __________. (pg. 550)

_____________ currents move sediments along a coastline, parallel to the shoreline. (pg. 550)

The _________ __________ of a beach refers to the balance of the sediment being deposited and the sediment being removed by waves, beach drifting and longshore currents. (pg. 551)

Where river valleys have been "drowned" by rising sea levels, a __________ shoreline results. (pg. 552)

The _________ of a beach is the zone of sediment deposition above the high-water line, whereas the ____________ is the zone of the beach regularly covered by the rise and fall of the tides. (pg. 552)

Coastal cliffs wear back as a _________ is cut at water level, and with time, the overhanging rock collapses. (pg. 553)

A _______ __________ is a long, narrow sandbar that develops offshore in areas where the depth of the water is relatively _________ . With time, these bars can close off a quiet body of water behind them, forming a __________. (pg. 555)

A linear deposit of sand connected to the shore is called a __________ . Such a feature may eventually extend across a bay, closing off a lagoon with a ___________ bar. (pg. 556)

A fjorded coast develops where the ocean has flooded valleys cut by _____________. (pp. 556-557)

Coral formations develop in warm, ___________ oceans. (pg. 557)

A ___________ reef is a ridge of coral that develops roughly parallel to the coast, and some distance offshore. An ____________ is a circular reef structure, with no land above sea level within the enclosed ___________. (pp. 557-560)